Purchasing Guild- and Craft-based Offices in the Ottoman Central Lands From the late sixteenth century onwards, the purchase of office became more widespread in the Ottoman realm than had true earlier on. But we do not know when the office of guild
kethüda first came to be included among the positions that could be bought and sold. At least in Istanbul and Bursa
kethüdas of the 1600s and 1700s often were deposed by the kadis because they had lost the confidence of their fellow guildsmen.
Kethüdas must have received some remuneration from the artisans they administered; and the combination of rapid changes in office and the possibility of financial gain whenever such a change occurred makes it seem likely that unrecorded sums of money sometimes changed hands when a new guild official was appointed. By the early eighteenth century we find soldiers acquiring the office of guild
kethüda, by returning military pay tickets or papers documenting pension rights to the central Treasury; these transactions occurred in Istanbul or Bursa, and occasionally even in provincial Anatolian towns. When confronted with a competitor offering more money, people holding offices had to relinquish their positions or else surrender the equivalent pay tickets; by this time the latter could be purchased in the open market. Once
kethüdaships that had been bought from the Ottoman administration became widespread, artisan organizations seem to have become less flexible: probably
kethüdas with military backing attempted to stabilize guild membership so as to protect their investments. However artisans did not completely lose control over their guilds, partly because of their own resistance to military domination and partly because their efforts were supported by certain kadis: perhaps this phenomenon indicates the latent tensions between military men and the juridical cum religious hierarchy in the later Ottoman Empire.
À partir de la fin du XVIe siècle, la vénalité des offices devint plus répandue, dans l’Empire ottoman, que cela n’avait été le cas antérieurement. Cependant nous ne savons pas quand l’office de
kethüda de guilde en vint, pour la première fois, à être inclus dans les charges qui pouvaient être achetées et vendues. Au moins à Istanbul et à Bursa, les
kethüda des XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles furent fréquemment destitués par les
kâdî parce qu’ils avaient perdu la confiance de leurs collègues de la guilde. Des
kethüda doivent avoir reçu quelque rémunération des artisans qu’ils administraient. La combinaison de ces changements rapides des détenteurs de la charge et de la possibilité de profits financiers à l’occasion de ces changements semble rendre probable que des sommes changeaient de mains, de façon occulte, quand un nouveau responsable de guilde était nommé. Au début du XVIIIe siècle, nous voyons des militaires acquérir la charge de
kethüda de guilde en restituant au Trésor central des bons de soldes ou d’autres certificats de pensions. De telles transactions avaient lieu à Istanbul et à Bursa et même, à l’occasion, dans des villes de province anatoliennes. Quand ils étaient en compétition avec un concurrent offrant davantage, les détenteurs des charges devaient, ou bien les abandonner ou céder les bons de solde équivalents. À la même époque, ces bons étaient disponibles sur le marché. Dès lors que les postes de
kethüdas achetés à l’administration ottomane se répandirent, les organisations d’artisans semblent être devenues moins souples. Il est probable que les
kethüdas d’origine militaire cherchèrent à stabiliser l’appartenance aux guildes, de manière à préserver leurs investissements. Néanmoins, les artisans ne perdirent pas entièrement leur contrôle sur les guildes, en partie du fait de leur propre résistance à la domination des militaires, et en partie parce que leurs efforts en ce sens furent soutenus par certains
kâdî. Ce dernier phénomène est peut-être révélateur des tensions latentes entre les militaires et la hiérarchie juridico-religieuse dans cet Empire ottoman tardif.
Source: poj.peeters-leuven.beWhy Should a Small Business Spend Time and Money on Data Backups? Andrew Whitehead is a contributor at Free-backup.info -- the home of the popular Amazon S3 based
online backup solution -- Back2zip. This article is also at
http://free-backup.info/small-business-spend-time-money-data-backups.html What is a Data Backup and Why is It Necessary?
Data backup is as important as the data you store on your system; if that holds valuable information critical to the daily operation of your business, then making a backup of it is also critical. Think about the customer information, supplier details, debtors & creditors, etc. stored on your hard drive, and then imagine that one morning you can no longer find them.
Backups are for your peace of mind, and to save you a lot of time and money if anything terminal happens to your data files. Your data is fundamental to the operation of your business, and should be valued as an important asset.
Any backup is basically copying your data files to disk or some other storage device, to provide a working copy of your data ready to be restored if the original copy is lost, damaged, or corrupted. This can can occur in a surprising number of ways - viruses, power failures, power spikes (these may not even be noticed! ), system crashes, external events such as flood, fire, theft, or vandalism , or even a simple user error.
A Sample Data Backup Procedure
How often you make a data backup depends on how frequently the data changes, the value you place on the information, its importance to your business, and the cost of replacing or recreating it. If you consider that your data file is too important to lose, or that it would be costly to replace, then you must backup regularly.
If you open and update your data files every day, you should set aside a labeled disk/tape for each day of the week and make a backup everday. The following week, when you next enter the backup file name, you will be prompted to overwrite or append the previous weeks file. If you overwrite, you will then be in a weekly cycle. If you are confident that you will always have space on the media, you can append and have a two weekly cycle.
If you feel your information doesn't alter that frequently, you can backup once a week and rotate disks on that basis - Week 1, Week 2, Week 3, Week 4, back to Week 1 again.
The ultimate system is to keep buying new media, backing up daily and working on a very long (6 monthly or more) cycle. This is to ensure that there is always a clean backup if a fault goes unnoticed for any length of time, but it is really overkill for a small business.
Don't Forget to Check That Your Data Backup Has Worked!
Don't be misled into thinking that because you have run a backup that it has worked, there are numerous horror stories of PC users suddenly needing to restore and only then finding out that their backup procedure has been routinely failing. You should regularly test the backup media to confirm that the data has been successfully backing up.
Don't put off learning how to recover files until disaster strikes. Practice to familiarize yourself with the process and make this a regular event, especially after any upgrades or changes.
Source: free-backup.info
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